土地制度是国家的根本性制度安排，也是重要的工具性制度设计，历史上的统治阶级习惯上视其为自身效用最大化的手段。清朝土地制度变迁蕴藏了封建专制的蚀骨之痛，也承受了近世中国的民族之殇。当今中国已经进入转型时期，推进国家治理体系和治理能力现代化是党和国家的重要事业。本文以清朝土地制度演化为研究对象选取国家治理的分析视角，从政府、市场和社会三个维度对其进行操作化处理。虽然中国古代社会并没有现代意义上的“治理”概念，但是在君主治国理政的过程中映射出了国家治理的现实形态，一定程度上反映了国家治理的机制机理。本文通过分析清朝土地制度演化机理进而厘清地权变动的内在逻辑，对“人-地关系”及附着在土地上的“人-人关系”进行阐释，试以历史经验通当下改革的重点，为提升国家治理能力和完善土地制度改革提供有益参考。

本文将清朝土地制度演化划分为三个时间阶段，提炼每个阶段的典型特征，并在每个阶段选取政府、市场和社会三个分析维度进行分析。在开国立业阶段，清朝官府强势主导土地制度形塑。一方面通过“圈地”“兑换”“拨补”等强制性政策手段建立庄田旗地制且实行奴仆式生产，侵犯和损害了广大农民的权益，造成流民众多，反抗不断。另一方面，修缮明朝土地关系和赋役关系。政权稳定后，通过推动租佃制发展、废除主佃主雇之间的封建名分少量松动了农民的人身依附关系，通过“摊丁入亩”等赋税制度改革一定程度上推动了农业生产发展，也深化了土地市场化程度。但是土地市场壮大的背后，是不合理的市场运作机制，蕴含着不公平的利益分配格局。清朝中后期，由于地权高度集中，土地兼并现象突出，农民饱受多重剥削，民生日益凋敝。1840年后中国沦为半殖民地半封建社会，内外交困之下，治理失效加速了封建土地制度的衰落，也致使庄田旗地制度难以存续。

本研究的特色是从国家治理的视角梳理清朝土地制度演化脉络，选取政府、市场、社会三个维度探究清朝土地制度的演化逻辑。以史为鉴，基于清朝的经验教训，研究发现：土地制度改革是提升国家治理能力的重要落脚点，完善土地管理制度应该转变政府职能，实现由“控制”到“服务”的角色定位；充分保护土地权利人的合法权益，预防权力滥用并进行充分的监管，避免以牺牲部分人的利益为代价换取经济社会短期发展的现象发生；合理开发土地资源的财产性功能，监督市场运作行为，规范土地合理流转，促进农民土地权益的进一步实现；鼓励社会力量参与土地治理，坐实和壮大以村集体为代表的社会力量，构建现代化农业农村服务体系。诚然，本文限于部分史料相对不足和笔者能力有限，对清朝多主体在土地制度演化中互动过程的诠释还有待深入，对社会力量参与土地关系变迁的解读不够充分。在日后的研究中将以此为重点，进一步做深入的研究。

The land system is the fundamental institutional arrangement of the country and an important instrumental system design. The ruling classes in history have traditionally regarded it as a means of maximizing their own utility. The changes of the land system in the Qing Dynasty contained the pain of feudal autocracy, and also suffered the national grief of modern China. Today, China has entered a period of transition, and promoting the modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity is an important undertaking of the party and the country. This paper takes the evolution of the land system in the Qing Dynasty as the research object and selects the analysis perspective of state governance, and conducts operational processing from the three dimensions of government, market and society. Although ancient Chinese society did not have the concept of "governance" in the modern sense, the reality of state governance was reflected in the process of monarchy governing the country, and to a certain extent, it reflected the mechanism of state governance. By analyzing the evolution mechanism of the land system in the Qing Dynasty, this paper clarifies the internal logic of the change of land rights, and interprets the "people-land relationship" and the "people-people relationship" attached to the land. It provides a useful reference for improving the national governance capacity and improving the reform of the land system.

This paper divides the evolution of the land system in the Qing Dynasty into three time stages, extracts the typical characteristics of each stage, and selects three analysis dimensions of government, market and society for analysis in each stage. In the stage of founding the state, the Qing government dominated the formation of the land system. On the one hand, the establishment of the Zhuangtian banner land system and the implementation of slave-style production through mandatory policies such as "enclosure", "exchange" and "subsidy" have violated and damaged the rights and interests of the vast number of farmers, resulting in a large number of displaced people and constant resistance. On the other hand, the relationship between land and servitude in the Ming Dynasty was repaired. After the regime was stabilized, by promoting the development of the tenancy system and abolishing the feudal status between the owner, the tenant and the employer, the peasants' personal dependence was loosened to a certain extent, and the reform of the tax system such as "dividing into the mu" promoted the development of agricultural production to a certain extent. , and also deepened the degree of land marketization. However, behind the growth of the land market is an unreasonable market operation mechanism and an unfair distribution of interests. In the middle and late Qing Dynasty, due to the high concentration of land rights and the prominent phenomenon of land mergers, farmers suffered from multiple exploitations, and people's livelihood became increasingly withered. After 1840, China became a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society. Under the internal and external difficulties, the failure of governance accelerated the decline of the feudal land system, which also made it difficult for the Zhuangtian banner land system to survive.

The characteristic of this study is to sort out the evolution of the Qing Dynasty's land system from the perspective of state governance, and select the three dimensions of government, market, and society to explore the evolutionary logic of the Qing Dynasty's land system. Taking history as a mirror and based on the experience and lessons of the Qing Dynasty, the study found that the reform of the land system is an important foothold to improve the country's governance capacity, and the improvement of the land management system should transform government functions and realize the role of "control" to "service"; fully protect land rights. The legitimate rights and interests of people, prevent the abuse of power and conduct adequate supervision, and avoid the phenomenon of short-term economic and social development at the expense of the interests of some people; rationally develop the property function of land resources, supervise market operations, and regulate the rational transfer of land. , promote the further realization of farmers' land rights and interests; encourage social forces to participate in land governance, consolidate and strengthen social forces represented by village collectives, and build a modern agricultural and rural service system. It is true that this paper is limited by the relative lack of some historical materials and the author’s limited ability. The interpretation of the interactive process of the multi-subjects in the evolution of the land system in the Qing Dynasty still needs to be deepened, and the interpretation of the social forces involved in the change of land relations is not sufficient. This will be the focus in future research, and further in-depth research will be done.