1793年清廷正式在西藏建立藏军，藏军从而成为西藏的常备军。晚清大部分时期藏军是一支保卫祖国西南边疆、维护国家主权的英勇军队。民国时期在英帝国主义的支持下，西藏地方政府两次发动藏军驱逐中央驻藏人员，下令藏军积极东扩，并意图阻止人民解放军渡过金沙江西岸，藏军已演变成西藏地方政府分裂祖国、镇压民众的工具。民国时期西藏地方和中央政府处于不正常关系，中央政府由于内忧外患无暇或无力顾及西藏，十三世达赖喇嘛为应对西藏内部和外部的威胁，对藏军进行了一系列改革，热振摄政时期藏军的发展基本陷入停滞状态，达扎摄政时期藏军得到一定的发展。民国时期是藏军史上重要的嬗变期，藏军军制的发展和演变主要体现在藏军的兵源、编制、指挥体制、训练方式、武器来源和后勤保障等方面，客观上促进了藏军的近代化，但由于西藏政教合一的封建农奴制度的束缚，藏军近代化进程较为缓慢，具有很大的历史局限性。民国时期藏军军制与西藏地方周边军队相比，有其自身的特点。

关于藏军兵源，兵源由兵役制度决定，民国时期西藏地方政府采取征兵制，当兵是农奴的一种差役，在不同时期、不同地区征兵标准并不一致，期间主要按土地面积计算兵差人数，也有过按户口和家产征兵的。兵差户还可以雇佣农奴当兵，但需支付雇佣费。另外，民国时期西藏地方政府在牧区也摊派兵役，某些部落缴纳银两抵兵差，某些部落按牲畜数量摊派兵差人数。可以说，民国时期西藏的征兵标准不断变化是由于扩军的需要，西藏地方政府通过马岗地和所有政府、贵族庄园、寺院的差岗地摊派新增士兵，甚至直接从富裕户和牧区中增派兵员，这些无疑损害了贵族和寺院集团的利益，且兵差户们不仅出人当兵还要提供兵差费、服装等，这明显也加重了农奴的负担。西藏财政收入主要供宗教活动，军事开支难以保障，西藏曾数次拖欠英国的军火费，民国后期西藏军队开支一度达到西藏政府财政收入的一半，极大地增加了政府的财政困难。因此，民国时期西藏正规军人数始终没有超过1万人。

关于藏军编制，代本团为藏军最高军事编制单位，甲种代本团额定人数为1000人，设两个代本，乙种代本团额定人数为500人，设一个代本。每500名士兵设代本1人、如本2人、甲本4人、定本20人、久本40-60人。藏军编制在原有基础上，仿效英国军队建制，还增加了军乐队和机枪连。民国时期英国、印度向西藏提供了大量的西方近代化武器，藏军代本团先后装备了火炮、重机枪、轻机枪、冲锋枪、步枪和手枪等新式武器，于1950年全部完成了常规武器的换代，促进了藏军武器的近代化。藏军士兵一般晋升到如本为止，代本和马基多由贵族世家弟子担任。民国时期藏军的待遇也经过几次调整，藏军薪饷由兵差户摊派和西藏地方政府供给。兵差户上缴兵差费加实物，也有将实物变为代金上缴。

关于藏军训练，1916年之前西藏地方政府采用英式、汉式、俄式、日式方法训练藏军，1916年之后西藏地方政府逐渐全面采用英式方法训练藏军，进一步促进了藏军训练的近代化。1921-1925年是藏军接受英人训练的高峰期，十三世达赖喇嘛圆寂之后藏军赴江孜和印度的训练次数和人数逐渐减少，且时断时续，民国后期藏军训练水平大幅下降。藏军主要训练科目为英式步枪的使用、战术训练、制式教练、队形变化、战斗动作等，还有健身操和旗语、军号等内容，都按照英式方法。军官中的定本、甲本和如本大都受过军事训练，军事素质尚可，代本和马基一般都是贵族出身，多数未受过军事训练，缺乏军事知识，不会指挥打仗。

关于藏军武器来源，除南京国民政府主动赠送一次西藏武器之外，藏军武器来源主要有三：一为从驻藏、驻康川军中收缴的旧式武器；一为自制的土武器，产量有限，之后因技术问题和技工不足，被迫停止生产；一为从英、俄、日购进的近代化武器，其中从英属印度和独立后的印度购入的武器数量是最多的。另外，民国时期英国、印度对西藏武器的供应，大部分都是过时或剩余的武器，少数是当时的新式武器。

关于藏军指挥体制，驻藏部队由马基直接指挥，驻康部队由昌都总管直接指挥，马基和昌都总管皆服从噶厦的指挥。高级军官常和文职官员互调，造成一些不懂军事的代本和马基指挥藏军，严重影响藏军作战水平。康区发生战事，一般由昌都总管下达命令给各代本，各代本传给如本，西藏代本多半不懂军事，作战时一切指挥都由如本以下的军官负责。此外，藏军指挥机构相当简单，指挥体系不够完备、成熟，缺乏侦查、情报、通讯等方面的机构和手段，这就不可能准确地掌握和判断敌情，从而影响指挥员正确判断和指挥。

关于藏军后勤保障，藏军没有辎重兵种，没有现代化的运输工具，行军打仗一切军用物资的运输，均由沿途百姓支乌拉差役来承担，军事通信手段落后，直到1949年拉萨和昌都无线电报才开通。十三达赖喇嘛时期西藏地方政府为了扩军筹饷，采取了一系列增税措施，成立军饷机构和粮税调查机构，取得了一定的效果。但这一度触犯了大多数贵族的利益，也是后期导致“龙厦事件”的因素之一。西藏地方政府增加税收还激化了噶厦与九世班禅拉章之间的矛盾，迫使九世班禅逃往内地。热振摄政活佛时期西藏地方政府与中央政府关系有所改善，热振活佛摄政后期藏军人数一度缩减，噶厦出台了税收减免政策，维护了与贵族和寺院集团的利益，减轻了农奴的负担。到了达扎活佛摄政时期，西藏地方政府再次扩军，不得不将税收减免政策废除，恢复旧例，以增加军饷，广大农奴再次陷入贫穷的深渊。

民国时期与藏军有关的新设机构如藏军司令部、扎西机电厂、拉萨电报局、拉萨电台、昌都电台、拉萨颇康、昌都颇康、巴希列空、筹饷局、索地方粮台等，这些机构既保留了传统的僧俗官员制度，又改变了噶厦传统政权组织形式，当中还引入了一些近代科学技术，是西藏地方机构近代化的开端。

民国时期藏军军制发展受到各种因素的制约，主要是政治、经济和宗教因素。西藏地方政府为维护“政教合一”的封建农奴制度，利用英国的先进技术壮大自己的军事实力。然而，1924年西藏发生亲英军官集团图谋夺权事件，十三世达赖喇嘛不得不削弱军队，解除了藏军总司令擦绒职务和惩处了其他高级军官，一度中断了藏军训练和从英国购买武器的计划，并从现代化的进程中退却。之后热振和达扎活佛摄政时期，他们既害怕请进西方的军事教官，又怕派大批的藏军军官到国外受训，因而藏军的整体训练水平十分有限。另外，寺院集团竭力阻扰藏军的现代化，现代化既有害于寺院生活的经济基础，也不利于西藏佛教价值垄断，藏军军官效仿西方生活方式，而使贵族和大商人逐渐英国化，宗教最终会失去施主。藏军改革从而威胁到贵族和寺院集团的经济利益。扩军、购买武器、训练等均须增加军费开支，而兵差户的土地并不增加，又增加了薪金、服装费、给养等，无疑加重了人民的负担，对贵族来说，扩军还减少了剥削的劳动力。因此，民国时期藏军改革的近代化程度是有限的，也反映了西藏封建农奴制走向了没落。

民国时期英国与中国西藏的军事关系是各有所需，但又各自防范。民国时期西藏或意图独立，或争取更大权力的“自治”，图谋实现“大藏区”计划。西藏地方政府向英国购入大量武器弹药，派遣藏军赴印度和江孜训练，以维护内部秩序和康藏边境稳定，并掣肘中央政府，但又不愿英国过分干预干涉西藏社会的各项事务。自1924年西藏亲英集团图谋夺权事件发生后，西藏地方政府不敢派遣大量军官赴印度训练，也怕请进西方军事教官。英国积极插手中国西藏的军事事务，提供西藏武器，帮助西藏建立电台，怂恿藏军东扩，“调停”康藏战争，挑拨和分裂中国，图谋将西藏变为英属印度的“缓冲国”，通过在印度和江孜训练藏军、拉拢西藏军官进行奴化教育，从而培植了一批“亲英”青年军官。然而，英国对西藏的军事支持是有限度的，如英国提供给西藏的武器多是过时的或剩余的武器，其中机关枪直到1931年才出售给西藏，允许西藏地方政府派遣到印度和江孜的人数都是有限的，有时英国还提出附加条件等等。英国不允许藏军真正强大，强大的藏军有可能导致西藏的扩张侵略和独立，损害英国在华利益以及和俄国的关系。在英国看来，西藏应当是在大不列颠监护之下的、名义上隶属于中国的、拥有高度自治权的西藏。

In 1793, the Qing Dynasty officially established the Tibetan army in Tibet, which became a standing army of Tibet. For most time of the late Qing Dynasty, the Tibetan army was a heroic army defending the southwestern frontier of the motherland and safeguarding the sovereignty of the country. During the period of the Republic of China, under the support of British imperialism, the Tibetan local government twice started the Tibetan army to expel Central Representative in Tibet, ordered the Tibetan army to expand actively to the east, intended to prevent the People's Liberation Army from crossing the west shore of Jinsha River. the Tibetan army split the motherland and suppress the people, which had become a tool for the Tibetan local government .During the period of the Republic of China, the Tibetan local government and the central government were in an abnormal relationship. The central government had no time or no capability to take care of Tibet due to internal and external problems. In order to cope with the internal and external threats of Tibet, The 13th Dalai Lama made a series of reforms to the Tibetan army, The development of Tibetan army basically stagnated in the period of Reting Regency, then Tibetan army got certain development in the period of Taktra Regency.

The period of the Republic of China was an important period of change in the history of the Tibetan army. The development and evolution of the Tibetan army's military system were mainly reflected in the Tibetan army's troop sources, organization, command system, training methods, weapon sources, and logistical support, which objectively promoted the modernization of the Tibetan army. However, due to the shackles of the feudal serf system in Tibet where politics and religion were integrated, the modernization of the Tibetan army had been slow and had great historical limitations. Compared with the local army around Tibet, the Tibetan military system had its own characteristics during the Republic of China.

Regarding the source of the Tibetan army, the source was determined by the military service system. In the period of the Republic of China, the Tibetan local government adopted the conscription system. Being a soldier was a kind of conscript labour by serfs. The conscription standards in different periods and regions were not the same. Then the number of soldiers was calculated mainly according to the land area, there had also been conscription according to household registration and family property. They could also hire serfs as soldiers, but they need to pay for their employment. In addition, during the period of the Republic of China, the Tibetan local government also apportioned military service in pastoral areas. Some tribes paid silver as military service, and some tribes apportioned the number of military service according to the number of livestock. It could be said that in the period of the Republic of China, Tibet's conscription standard was constantly changing because of the need of expanding the army. The local government of Tibet prorated new soldiers through Magang land and all the government, aristocratic manor, temple's tax lands, even directly prorated more soldiers from the rich households and pastoral areas, which undoubtedly harmed the interests of the aristocrats and temple groups, The household of conscript labour not only provided soldiers but also military expenses , clothing, etc., which obviously increased the burden of serfs. Tibet's fiscal revenue was mainly used for religious activities, and military expenditure was difficult to guarantee. Tibet defaulted on Britain's military expenditure several times. In the late Republic of China, Tibet's military expenditure once reached half of the Tibetan government's fiscal revenue, which greatly increased the government's financial difficulties. Therefore, during the period of the Republic of China, the number of regular forces in Tibet never exceeded 10000.

Regarding the establishment of the Tibetan army, the Dap?n regiment was the highest military establishment unit of the Tibetan army. The rated number of the Dap?n regiment of type A was 1000, which was divided into two Dap?ns. The rated number of the Dep?n regiment of type B was 500, which established one Dap?n. Every 500 soldiers, established one Dap?n, two Rup?n, four Gyap?n, twenty Dingp?n and forty-sixty Chup?n. On the basis of the original structure, the Tibetan army imitated the British military system and added military bands and machine gun companies. During the period of the Republic of China Britain and India provided Tibet with a large number of western modern weapons. Dap?n regiments of the Tibetan army had successively equipped new weapons such as artillery, heavy machine gun, light machine gun, submachine gun, rifle and pistol. In 1950, it completed the replacement of conventional weapons and promoted the modernization of Tibetan military weapons. The soldiers of the Tibetan army were generally promoted to Rup?n, and the disciples of nobility family served as Dap?n and Commander-in-Chief. During the period of the Republic of China the treatment of the Tibetan army was also adjusted several times. The salaries of the Tibetan army were apportioned by the household of conscript labour and provided by the local government of Tibet. the household of conscript labour turned in the tax fees plus the physical items, and also turn the physical items into the deposits.

Regarding the training of Tibetan army, before 1916 the Tibetan local government adopted the British, Chinese, Russian and Japanese methods to train Tibetan army. After 1916 the local government of Tibet gradually adopted the British method to train Tibetan army in an all-round way, which further promoted the modernization of Tibetan army training. From 1921 to 1925, it was the peak period for the Tibetan army to receive British training. After the death of the 13th Dalai Lama, the number and times of the Tibetan army's training in Gyantse and India gradually decreased, meanwhile the training level of the Tibetan army in the late Republic of China dropped sharply. The main training subjects of the Tibetan army were the use of British rifles, tactical training, system training, formation change, combat action, etc., as well as fitness exercises, semaphores, military signals, etc., all in accordance with the British method. Most of the officers, such as Dingp?n, Gyap?n and Rup?n, had received military training and their military quality was acceptable. Dap?n and Commander-in-Chief were generally of noble origin. Most of them had not received military training, lacked military knowledge and couldn’t command fighting.

Regarding the sources of weapons of the Tibetan army, in addition to the Tibet weapons presented by the Nanking National Government, there were three main sources of weapons of the Tibetan army: one source came from the old-fashioned weapons collected from the troops of Sichuan stationed in Tibet and Khams; the other came from the self-made local weapons with limited output, which were forced to stop production due to technical problems and insufficient technicians; another came from the modern weapons purchased from Britain, Russia and Japan, in which British India and India after independence provided the most weapons. In addition, during the period of the Republic of China, most of the British and Indian supplies outdated or surplus weapons to Tibet , a few were new weapons of that time.

Regarding the command system of the Tibetan army, the armies stationed in Tibet were under the direct command of Maji, and the armies stationed in Khams were under the direct command of the general manager of Changdu. Both Maji and the general manager of Changdu were subject to the command of Kashag. Senior officers often exchanged with civilian officials, which resulted in some Dap?ns who did not understand the military and Ma Ji commanding the Tibetan army, seriously affecting the operational level of the Tibetan army. In case of war in Kham District, the general manager of Changdu would give orders to the Dap?ns, and the Dap?ns would give orders to Rup?n. Most of the Tibetan Dap?ns did not understand military affairs, and the officers below Rup?n were in charge of commanding during the war. In addition, the command structure of the Tibetan army was quite simple, the command system was not complete and mature, lacked institutions and means in investigation, intelligence, communication and other aspects, which makes it impossible to accurately grasp and judge the situation of the enemy, thus affecting the correct judgment and command of the commanders.

Regarding the logistics support of the Tibetan army, the Tibetan army had no baggage arms, no modern means of transportation, all the transportation of military materials for the march and war was undertaken by the people's support and Wula troops along the way. The military communication means were backward, the wireless telegraph was not opened until 1949 between Lhasa and Changdu. During the period of the 13th Dalai Lama, the local government of Tibet adopted a series of measures to increase taxes in order to expand the army and raise salaries, set up military pay agencies and grain tax investigation agencies, which achieved certain results. However, it once violated the interests of most nobles,which was one of the factors that led to the "Longxia incident" in the later period. increasing tax by Tibetan local government also intensified the contradiction between Kashag and the ninth Panchen Lama, which forced the ninth Panchen to flee to the mainland. The relationship between the Tibetan local government and the central government improved during the Regency of the Rezhen living Buddha. The number of Tibetan army was once reduced in the late Regency of the Rezhen living Buddha. Kashag issued a tax relief policy, which safeguarded the interests of the nobility and the Temple group, reduced the burden of serfs. In the period of the Regency of Dazha living Buddha, the local government of Tibet expanded its army again, then had to abolish the tax relief policy and restore the old practice so as to increase military pay. The vast number of serfs fell into the abyss of poverty again.

During the period of the Republic of China, the new organizations related to the Tibetan army, such as the headquarters of the Tibetan army, Zhaxi Electrical and Mechanical Factory, Lhasa telegraph office, Lhasa Radio Station, Changdu Radio Station, Lhasa Pokang, Changdu Pokang, Bashirikon, Salary Raising Bureau, and Suo Local Food Station, etc., these organizations not only retained the traditional system of monks and folk officials, but also changed the organizational form of the traditional regime of Kashag, meantime introduced some modern science and technology ,which were the beginning of the modernization of local institutions in Tibet.

During the period of the Republic of China, the development of the military system of the Tibetan army was restricted by various factors, which were mainly political, economic and religious factors. In order to maintain the feudal serfdom system of "unity of politics and religion", the local government of Tibet made use of the advanced technology of Britain to strengthen its military strength. However, a group of British officers conspired to seize power in 1924, which made the 13th Dalai Lama have to weaken the army, removed the post of chief of the Tibetan army and punished other senior officers.The training of the Tibetan army was interrupted at one time, the plans buying weapons from Britain concealed and Tibet retreated from the process of modernization.

After that, during the Regency of Reting and Taktra Living Buddha, they were afraid to invite military instructors from the West and send a large number of Tibetan army officers abroad for training, so the overall training level of Tibetan army was very limited. In addition, the Temple group tried its best to block the modernization of the Tibetan army, which was not only harmful to the economic basis of the temple life, but also to the monopoly of Tibetan Buddhism value. The Tibetan army officers imitated the Western way of life, and gradually made the aristocrats and big businessmen Anglicized, the religion eventually lost its benefactor.The reform of the Tibetan army threatened the economic interests of the nobles and the temple groups. In order to expand the army, purchase weapons, train and so on, Tibet need to increase military expenditure. However, the land of the soldiers does not increase. In addition, Increasing salaries, clothing costs, supplies and so on, which undoubtedly increases the burden of the people. For the nobles, the expansion of the army also reduces the labor force of exploitation. Therefore, the modernization of the reform of the Tibetan army in the period of the Republic of China was limited, which also reflected the decline of the feudal serfdom in Tibet.

During the period of the Republic of China, the military relations between Britain and China Tibet had their own needs, but they had their own precautions. During the period of the Republic of China, Tibet either intended to be independent, or to strive for "autonomy" of greater power, attempted to realize the plan of "the great Tibet region" . The local government of Tibet purchased a large number of weapons and ammunition from the UK, sent Tibetan troops to India and Gyantse for training in order to maintain internal order and the stability of the border between Tibet and Kham, handicapped the central government. However, Tibet did not want the UK to interfere excessively in various affairs of Tibetan society. Since 1924, when Tibet's Pro British group attempted to seize power, the local government of Tibet has been afraid to send a large number of officers to India for training or to invite Western military instructors. Britain actively intervened in military affairs in China Tibet, provided Tibetan weapons, helped Tibet set up radio stations, encouraged the Tibetan army to expand eastward, mediate the Tibetan war, instigated and split China, attempted to turn Tibet into a "buffer country" of British India. Through training the Tibetan army in India and Gyangze and enlisting Tibetan officers for enslavement education, a group of young British officers were cultivated. However, Britain's military support for Tibet was limited. For example, most of the weapons provided by Britain to Tibet were outdated or surplus weapons, of which machine guns were not sold to Tibet until 1931. The number of people allowed to be sent to India and Gyangze by the local government of Tibet was limited, Britain sometimes put forward additional conditions, etc. Britain did not allow the Tibetan army to be really strong. A strong Tibetan army may lead to Tibet's expansion, invasion and independence, damaged the interests of Britain in China and its relations with Russia. In Britain's view, Tibet should be under the custody of Great Britain, nominally subordinate to China, with a high degree of autonomy.